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The subjective interpretation of numerical information can induce the so-called unit effect, i.e. the scale and unit chosen to quantify such information might influence a person's judgment. Although this bias is well-known, until now, it has been difficult to obtain an overview of the respective research. There are a variety of versions of the unit effect, different terms are used for the same kind of effect and proposals for grouping such effects lack a straightforward typology.

A literature review is conducted using a systematic literature search design. We address the following questions: (1) What knowledge exists about the unit effect? (2) What is a suitable concept for structuring the findings? (3) What ideas can be deduced for future research focusing on performance management?

A total of 11 versions of the unit effect and 27 moderating variables are identified and grouped into four contexts in which the effects occur. Structured according to these contexts, research ideas are depicted. They include suggestions for studies adapted to the field of performance management to scrutinize the main effects and moderators addressed in the literature to date as well as to consider additional potential moderators.

Few publications explicitly address the unit effect from the perspective of performance management. As one of the core objectives of this business function is to enable rational decision-making based on numerical information, it can be assumed that corresponding research will be very fruitful.

The determination of input and output factors is a well-known source of pitfalls when applying data envelopment analysis (DEA). The purpose of this paper is to contribute to overcome the respective problems of input/output factor determination related to factor selection, dual-role factors and undesirable factors.

The problems of input/output factor determination are discussed from a goal-oriented perspective, shedding a new light on the role of input/output factors in DEA. This is exemplified by the case of measuring pharmacy stores’ efficiency concerning their goal of customer retention.

The findings suggest to applying a generalized DEA (GDEA). The three steps of this approach include the development of a system of objectives, the derivation of corresponding performance criteria as well as the construction of cost and benefit functions. These functions build the basis for GDEA models, of which one is exemplarily described and applied to the customer retention case.

While traditional DEA implicitly assumes linear cost and benefit functions, GDEA requires to explicitly specifying these functions. In doing so, the approach contributes to solve the problem of factor selection, the problem of dual-role factors and the problem of undesirable factors.

For determining input/output factors in a consistent and transparent manner, it is recommended to apply GDEA in practical benchmarking studies.

GDEA integrates well-known concepts of multi-criteria decision making into traditional DEA. The new approach helps to cope with the challenges of input/output factor determination in DEA.

The paper aims to explain how the balanced scorecard concept can be improved through customising the normal four perspectives.

An analysis of existing methods for developing a balanced scorecard reveals that the goals identified by using the approaches may not correspond to the company's mission and values. Against this background, fundamental multi‐criteria decision‐making principles are applied to design a method which helps to overcome this weakness.

Since the core idea is to derive the perspectives directly from the mission statements of a company, the method described here helps to develop an individualized balanced scorecard. A case study illustrates how the method works in practice.

The paper has practical relevance for the effectiveness and credibility of the balanced scorecard inside a company, particularly as it is gaining additional importance due to the fact that the concept is increasingly being used for external reporting.

Pointing out how an important methodical shortcoming of the balanced scorecard concept can be eliminated, the paper is especially of interest for practitioners.

Mobile social network games (mSNGs) are gaining increasing popularity recently. Many of the games are marketed using the brand pages on social network services including Facebook. The purpose of this paper is to identify the characteristics of the posts on the brand pages that affect the reaction of users.

Four independent variables were tested for their influence on user reaction: informativeness, structure, call for action, and the type of reward. In total, 439 posts on the brand pages of two mobile game companies on Facebook were manually collected. The hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis.

The characteristics of the brand pages appeared to have significant impact on the users’ reaction. Overall, being informative, calling for action, and providing content-related (game-related) rewards have significant and positive impact on the reaction of users. Using only texts or embedding videos or hyperlinks in the posts has either negative or no significant impact on the reaction of users.

The literature review shows that not many empirical studies have been conducted so far about the brand pages of mSNGs. Therefore, this study contributes to the understanding of users’ reaction on the brand pages for mSNGs, and how companies should manage their communication effort on the pages.

Zu den Aspekten des wirtschaftlichen Phänomens “Fremdenverkehr”, die in der Literatur bisher noch kaum behandelt worden sind, zählt das Preisproblem. Tatsächlich bietet seine theoretische Seite auch wenig Anlass dazu, denn sowohl die Preisstellung des einzelnen Fremdenverkehrsbetriebes wie die Preisbildung durch das Aufeinandertreffen von Angebot und Nachfrage auf dem Markt sind Anwendungsfälle der allgemeinen ökonomischen Theorie und als solche mit dem erprobten analytischen Instrumentarium ohne weiteres darzustellen.

International alliances are becoming an increasingly important and recognized means of conducting business. Once viewed primarily as a strategy to enter foreign markets, alliances have become a very effective way for established businesses to accelerate technological development, enhance productivity and lower investment risks. In many ways joint ventures offer the most attractive form of trade alliance and a significant portion of the international joint ventures are in the service sector. Although, services are generally viewed by academicians and practitioners differently than products, this apparent difference has been neglected in the study of joint ventures formation and operations. Since the basic conditions and scope for services and products differ, one can expect that joint venture partners' interest and management strategies for service joint venture will also differ. Thus, the purpose of this study is to discuss and identify major research issues in studying service joint ventures. Some research propositions in regard to the service joint ventures are developed. Furthermore, future research avenues in international service joint venture operations are delineated.

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the usefulness of data envelopment analysis (DEA) as a consulting and management tool that fulfils the requirements of quantitatively and comprehensively evaluating and benchmarking the efficiency of intellectual capital (IC).

DEA is applied for a sample of input and output data of all technical and natural science departments of Austrian universities. Correlation and factor analyses are carried out to select appropriate variables of the sample. DEA estimates the production function of the units under evaluation in relation to peer units, which are identified as fully efficient.

Results illustrate the existence of scale efficiencies of Austrian university departments and show a large heterogeneity within and among universities as well as between different fields of study with respect to their efficiency.

DEA is mainly appropriate for larger samples inside an organisation or among different organisations. The method can be easily transferred to similar management situations in other types of organisations or industries, where the efficiency of IC should be assessed.

The results reveal detailed improvement or reduction amounts of each input and output of the evaluated organisational units and indicate areas for managerial action at Austrian universities.

For the first time DEA is applied for evaluating and benchmarking IC of Austrian universities. DEA is proposed as consulting and management tool for evaluation IC performance.